A landlocked country of
western South America. Once a part of the Incan Empire, the area was
conquered by Spain in the 16th century. The country was named after
Simón Bolívar, who helped win its independence from Spain in 1825.
Sucre is the legal capital and the seat of the judiciary. La Paz is
the administrative center and the largest city. Population:
7,237,000.
OTHER FORMS:
Bo·livi·an
—ADJECTIVE & NOUN
Bolivia
(bōlĭv´ē,
Span. bōlē´vyä) , officially Republic of Bolivia, republic (1995
est. pop. 7,896,000), 424,162 sq mi (1,098,581 sq km), W South
America. One of the two inland countries of South America, Bolivia
is shut in from the Pacific in the W by Chile and Peru; in the E and
N it borders on Brazil, in the SE on Paraguay, and in the S on
Argentina. Sucre is the constitutional capital and seat of the
judiciary, but La Paz is the largest city, political and commercial
focus of the nation, and the administrative capital and seat of
government.
Land and People
Bolivia presents a sharp contrast between high, bleak mountains
and plateaus in the west and lush, tropical rain forests in the
east. In the southeast it merges into the semiarid plains of the
Gran Chaco. The Andes mountain system reaches its greatest width
in Bolivia. Two cordilleras, the western one tracing the border
with Chile and the eastern running north and south across the
center of the country, are divided by a high plateau (altiplano),
most of it 12,000 ft (3,660 m) above sea level–barren,
windswept, and segmented by mountain spurs.
Despite the harsh conditions the altiplano
is the population center of Bolivia. Many sections for want of
drainage have brackish lakes and salt beds, notably the extensive
Salar de Uyuni in the south. In the north are Lake Titicaca, which
Bolivia shares with Peru, and Lake Poopó. This region, world famous
for its breathtaking scenery, was the home of one of the great
pre-Columbian civilizations. Well known are the ruins of Tiahuanaco.
The eastern mountains, consisting of
three major ranges, rise to the cold, forbidding heights of the
Puna plateau (as high as 16,000 ft/4,880 m) and in the north to
the snowcapped peaks of Illimani (21,184 ft/6,457 m) and Illampú
(21,276 ft/6,485 m). In these mountains lies the source of the
exploited wealth of Bolivia–its minerals. Tin is by far the most
important product, but silver was once the chief metal, and
tungsten, copper, wolframite, bismuth, antimony, zinc, lead,
iron, and gold are also mined. The names of some mining towns,
notably Potosí and Oruro, are world famous.
From the mountains, headstreams cut
eastward, carving deep gorges and fingerlike valleys. In these
valleys are some of Bolivia's garden spots–Sucre, Cochabamba,
and Tarija. Santa Cruz de la Sierra and La Paz are the two main
cities of tropical Bolivia. In the eastern foothills headstreams
gather to form the Beni, the Guaiporé, and the Mamoré
(tributaries of the Madeira, in Brazil), which flow through the
torrid, humid yungas, covered with dense rain forests, and
inhabited mainly by indigenous South Americans. The region is
the most fertile in the country, yielding cacao, coffee, and
tropical fruits, and in the early 20th cent. was a major source
of wild rubber and quinine. Some of the more accessible valleys,
with luxuriant scenery and a pleasantly warm climate, have
become popular Bolivian resort areas.
More than half the population is
indigenous, although the citizens of European descent (some 5%
to 15% of the people) or mixed European and native ancestry
(about 25% to 30% of the population) maintain economic,
political, and social hegemony. The predominant native languages
are Quechua and Aymara; they and Spanish are Bolivia's official
languages. A few indigenous groups have remained isolated from
European culture. Most of the population is Roman Catholic,
although many people of indigenous descent retain the substance
of their pre-Christian beliefs. A small but extremely active
Protestant minority also exists. There are eight universities in
the country.
Economy
Despite the importance of its mines and
its large reserves of natural gas and crude oil, Bolivia is one
of the poorest nations in Latin America and still lives by a
subsistence economy. A large part of the population makes its
living from the illegal growing of coca, the source of cocaine;
a government eradication begun in the late 1990s has depressed
the economy in those areas where coca-growing was important.
Coffee, cotton, soybeans, corn, sugarcane, rice, potatoes, and
wheat are the other major crops; timber is also important.
Industry is limited to processing (largely smelting and
petroleum refining) and small-scale manufacturing. Although
Bolivia has much hydroelectric potential, it is underutilized.
Bolivia's mineral wealth furnishes the
bulk of its exports, although natural gas, soybeans, and jewelry
are also important. Chemicals, petroleum, and consumer goods are
imported. The tin industry, which is a major component of the
economy, has received increasing competition from SE Asia, and
as a result several tin mines have closed. The United States,
Japan, the United Kingdom, and Brazil are the chief trading
partners. Bolivia became an associate member of the Southern
Cone Common Market in 1996.
Government
Bolivia has had more than 190
revolutions and coups since it became independent in 1825. The
latest constitution was adopted in 1967. It provides for a
president elected for a four-year term and a bicameral
legislature consisting of an upper chamber of senators and a
lower chamber of deputies. Administratively, Bolivia is divided
into nine departments.
History
Early History
The altiplano was a center of native
life even before the days of the Inca; the region was the home
of the great Tihuanaco empire. The Aymara had been absorbed into
the Inca empire long before Gonzalo Pizarro and Hernando Pizarro
began the Spanish conquest of the Inca in 1532. In 1538 the
indigenous inhabitants in Bolivia were defeated.
Uninviting though the high, cold
country was, it attracted the Spanish because of its rich silver
mines, discovered as early as 1545. Exploiters poured in, bent
on quick wealth. Forcing the natives to work the mines and the
obrajes
[textile mills] under duress, they remained indifferent to all
development other than the construction of transportation
facilities to remove the unearthed riches. Native laborers were
also used on great landholdings. Thus began the system of
plunder economy and social inequality that persisted in Bolivia
until recent years. Economic development was further retarded by
the rugged terrain, and conditions did not change when the
region was made (1559) into the audiencia of Charcas, which was
attached until 1776 to the viceroyalty of Peru and later to the
viceroyalty of La Plata.
Independence and the Nineteenth
Century
The revolution against Spanish control
came early, with an uprising in Chuquisaca in 1809, but Bolivia
remained Spanish until the campaigns of José de San Martín and
Simón Bolívar. Independence was won with the victory (1824) at
Ayacucho of Antonio José de Sucre. After the formal proclamation
of independence in 1825, Bolívar drew up (1826) a constitution
for the new republic. The nation was named Bolivia, and
Chuquisaca was renamed Sucre, after the revolutionary hero.
Bolivia inherited ambitions and
extensive territorial claims that proved disastrous, leading to
warfare and defeat. At the time of independence it had a
seacoast, a portion of the Amazon basin, and claims to most of
the Chaco; in little more than a century all these were lost.
The strife-ridden internal history of Bolivia began when the
first president, Sucre, was forced to resign in 1828. A steady
stream of egocentric caudillos plagued Bolivia thereafter.
Andrés Santa Cruz, desiring to reunite Bolivia and Peru, invaded
Peru in 1836 and established a confederation, which three years
later was destroyed on the battlefield of Yungay.
Although a few presidents, notably José
Ballivián, made efforts to reform the administration and improve
the economy, the temptation to wholesale corruption was always
strong, and honest reform was hard to achieve. The nitrate
deposits of Atacama proved valuable, but the mining concessions
were given to Chileans. Trouble over them led (1879), during the
administration of Hilarión Daza, to the War of the Pacific (see
Pacific, War of the). As a result Bolivia lost Atacama to Chile.
The next serious loss was the little-known region of the Acre
River, which had become valuable because of its wild rubber.
After a bitter conflict, Bolivia, under President José Manuel
Pando, yielded the area to Brazil in 1903 for an indemnity.
Twentieth-Century Bolivia
Attempts at reorganization and reform,
especially by Ismael Montes, were overshadowed in the 20th cent.
by military coups, rule of dictators, and bankruptcy. This
repeated sequence led to an increase in foreign influence,
through loans and interests in mines and oil fields. Attempts to
raise Bolivia from its status as an underdeveloped country met
with little success, although great personal fortunes were
amassed from tin mining by tycoons such as Simón I. Patiño.
Conflicting claims to the Chaco, which
was thought to be oil-rich, brought on yet another disastrous
territorial war, this time with Paraguay (1932—35). The fighting
ended in 1935 with both nations exhausted and Bolivia defeated
and stripped of most of its claims in that area. Programs for
curing the ills of the nation were hampered by military coups
and countercoups. World War II proved a boon to the Bolivian
economy by increasing demands for tin and wolframite.
International pressure over pro-German elements in the
government eventually forced Bolivia to break relations with the
Axis and declare war (1943).
Rising prices aggravated the
restiveness of the miners over miserable working conditions;
strikes were brutally suppressed. The crisis reached a peak in
Dec., 1943, when the nationalistic, pro-miner National
Revolutionary Movement (MNR) engineered a successful revolt. The
regime, however, was not recognized by other American nations
(except Argentina) until 1944, when pro-Axis elements in the MNR
were officially removed. In 1946 the leader of the MNR-backed
government, Major Gualberto Villaroel, was lynched. The
conservative government installed in 1947 was soon threatened by
opposition from the MNR and the extreme left.
In the 1951 presidential elections
Victor Paz Estenssoro, the MNR candidate, won a majority of the
votes, but was prevented from taking office by a military junta.
The MNR, with the aid of the national police (the carabineros)
and of a militia recruited from miners and peasants, rebelled
and took power. The revolutionary government proceeded to
expropriate and nationalize the tin holdings of the huge Patiño,
Hochschild, and Aramayo interests and inaugurated a program of
agrarian reform. Civil rights and suffrage were extended to the
indigenous people. Education, health, and construction projects
were begun.
In 1956 the MNR candidate, Hernán Siles
Zuazo won the presidential election, and in 1960 the MNR further
consolidated its power with the reelection of Victor Paz
Estenssoro. The United States, in spite of losses incurred by
American investors, stepped up its program of technical and
financial assistance, and Siles Zuazo temporarily succeeded in
stemming inflation. But economic and political factors weakened
the government, and the eruption of dissident splinter groups,
some fostering acts of political terror, brought all attempts at
further reform to a virtual halt.
In 1964 the government was overthrown
by the military. A junta dominated by Gen. René Barrientos
Ortuño assumed power. The regime used troops to occupy the mines
but did not rescind the important reforms of the MNR. Barrientos
was elected president in 1966. A radical guerrilla movement, led
by the Cuban Ernesto "Che" Guevara, was set back seriously when
government troops killed Guevara in 1967. Barrientos died in
1969; his successor, Luis Adolfo Siles Salinas, was overthrown
by Gen. Alfredo Ovando Candia. Ovando nationalized the Gulf Oil
Company facilities in Bolivia.
A rightist military junta overthrew
Ovando in 1970 but lasted only one day, succumbing to a leftist
coup led by Gen. Juan José Torres. Under Torres relations with
the Soviet Union, which had been established by Ovando, became
closer, to the detriment of ties with the United States. Torres
was overthrown in 1971 by Col. Hugo Banzer Suárez, who was
supported by both the MNR and its traditional rightist opponent,
the Bolivian Socialist Falange. Banzer closed the universities,
arrested opposition politicians, and returned Bolivia to a
pro-U.S. foreign policy. In 1974 an all-military cabinet was
installed. Banzer was forced to resign in 1978 by the military,
which soon gained control of the government and imposed martial
law.
Civilian rule and democratic government
were restored in 1982, when Siles Zuazo again became president.
He served from 1982 to 1985, when he was succeeded by Victor Paz
Estenssoro. During the 1980s, hyperinflation and labor unrest
led to internal disturbances, which were intensified by
government austerity programs. The government, however, made
progress in its efforts to suppress the drug trade. Jaime Paz
Zamora succeeded Paz Estenssoro as president in 1989. In the
early 1990s the government offered tax incentives to attract
foreign investment in the mining industry.
Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada, a mining
entrepreneur and former planning minister, was elected president
in 1993. He pursued a policy of privatization and continued the
free-market reforms begun in the late 1980s. He also launched a
social security program and granted greater autonomy and more
resources to poor urban and indigenous communities. In 1997,
Hugo Banzer Suárez once again came to power, this time through
democratic elections. He continued his predecessor's reform
programs and pursued an aggressive coca-eradication and
alternative-crop program. The government's antidrug programs led
to economic difficulties in some regions in Bolivia, which
resulted in protests and clashes and the temporary declaration
of a state of emergency in Apr., 2000. Protests again in
September—October paralyzed the economy, forcing Banzer's
government to grant economic concessions to indigenous groups,
although it refused to alter its plans to end illegal coca
production.
In Aug., 2000, illness led Banzer to
resign the presidency; the vice president, Jorge Fernando
Quiroga Ramírez succeeded him. After a close election in June,
2002, in which no presidential candidate won 50% of the vote,
the congress elected former president Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada,
who had won a plurality. The country's economic difficulties and
anti-coca campaign has led to increasing political assertiveness
by persons of indigenous descent; roughly 60% of Bolivians lived
in poverty at the beginning of 2003. Proposed tax increases,
which were designed to reduce government deficits to the level
demanded by the International Monetary Fund, sparked protests in
La Paz (Feb., 2003) that turned violent and forced the president
to flee the presidential palace.
Bibliography
See H. Osborne, Bolivia: A Land
Divided (3d ed. 1964); W. E. Carter, Bolivia: A Profile
(1971); J. V. Fifer, Bolivia: Land, Location, and Politics
Since 1825 (1972); D. B. Heat, Historical Dictionary of
Bolivia (1972); H. S. Klein, Bolivia: The Evolution of a
Multi-Ethnic Society (1982); J. Dunkerley, Rebellion in
the Veins: Political Struggle in Bolivia, 1952—82
(1984).
The Mars Base Bolivia Page.
POSTING
We are sorry but at this time we are not accepting outside
members. to the division of Bolivia. This is in part due to a slight feud
between Christy and Stephanie. We here at Chromacity might split the group into separate
sections of mars Both Stephanie & Christy wish to run the Bolivia
Section, but in the past Stephanie who is in charge has express little to no
interest in performing he duties as acting leader. We will make
corrections sometime in the near future to resolve this and we hope the decision
will be the best one for everyone
We here at Mars Bolivia are a apart of Chromacity. We are the ones
that like to party the most. Of course that is to say we rather stay out
of trouble if that was at all possible. For now we are thinking up new
ideas for our web pages and are looking in the near future to make things happen
here. Christy here is the one who runs things and gets things done.
She deserves all the credit for making things happen when we all get together.
She is the wild child of the bunch but we wouldn't trade her for anyone
else.
Mars Bolivia was a apart of Immaculate and Jaka converted into Chronicity,
using the country Bolivia is an inside joke of sorts. None of the members
are of or from Bolivia, but it was part of a class assignment and someone wrote
Bolivia in fancy lettering on the front of a folder that was turn in.
Afterwards the folder was reused to hold club papers in. Otherwise no connection
to Bolivia the country exists.
To
Add other things to this site write to
Mars@Chromacity.org,
or if Stephanie or Christy decides they need an Attitude adjustment, maybe they
might try to upload something someday. Of course no one is getting paid here.
Times are Looking better for Bolivian members... T-shirts
have been made and can be found at Christy R's house. Bumper stickers were sent out at Christmas and if you
didn't get one, Oh well!
Ok well I know that Stephanie O. is Captain of this section
but I personally have no idea what it is that she is supposed to do.
Her input in this collection is non-existent. I need others in the club to
lower her rank and let me be Captain. I have more input to this site
and to the club than her, please one of you
CA's
change this. (CHRISTY E.
R.)
Coming soon our own Pluto pages (Links) not the
stuff they have!
LOL>
New Page for Christy
Most Bolivia Members have a lot in common with this
movie... LOL
Chromacity got its start as
Chronicity, a combination of a lot of
different ideas and friends. I have always had lot of fascination with
the red planet Mars. We are to blame for the idea connected to the planets,
using their names as sections. In Robotech third series the good guys were
of the 21 Mars division. Opps! the Mars logo looks a lot like the one in
Robotech.
The Ranking system is based on Star Trek and The US Navy. In
Short the navy only has 5 admirals. We had more people who wanted high
ranks, and made it up as we went along. Oh and sometimes its just fun to be
different...
Mars Base division started as Jaka, AKA Jakan Army or United Democratic Alliance
of Jaka. The club converted to United Republic of Chronicity (URC) and
part of its members splintered off branch called El Grupo De Chronicity (EGDC).
EGDC's motto
"Live life to the fullest and don't take any of this seriously."
The definition of Chronicity is "A chronic incurable habit." URC &
EGDC still kind of exist but now its back together as Chromacity: "the saturation of
colors".
To
Add other things to this site write to
Mars@Chromacity.org
we will try to upload it as fast as possible. Of course no one is getting paid
here.
Welcome to a
crazy place!
Chromacity is a club working and building on
commonalities that people have. Our members come
from many different walks of life. And we are proud
of the mix of things we are sharing with others.
Take the time to look around, at this site, posting
for our club. We welcome new ideas and look forward
to working on making this site more exciting for not
only our members but those who stop and visit.
For the club we allow web space for
our members to express their hobbies and ideas. Some pages listed in the
club don't fully express the hobbies & ideas that our members attempt to express
to others. It is mainly a work in progress. Membership in Chromacity is free, we
however do accept donations if members so wish to donate to the cause.
Mostly for amusement Chromacity is
divided into separate groups. Each group is listed in different division's
(Mostly named after Planets). Mars, Venus, Neptune, Saturn, Jupiter, Pluto,
Mercury, Uranus, and Earth. Leaving room to grow, we have included the option to
have Star Bases. Each planet's name is a separate division of Chromacity. Each
division has sections to it devoted to specific interests, goals and ideas.
Although the sections of the club seem separate, all try to help each other.
Membership's are given out by
the leaders of each division and last for as long as anyone wants to be
included.
"Nature does nothing
uselessly."
-- Aristotle,
Greek philosopher,
384-322BC
While a lot of references
are made to Greek gods
we are into Christian
beliefs
Memberships
are Free!
For as long
as you wish
to be a
member of
Chromacity
its free!
Making
money was one of the original intentions
when the club was formed. Selling
candy and jewelry was things that
members participated in, later on we got
real jobs. There is still an
interest to make money and pool our
resources together and use the new
ideas. Bartering is one way to
trade and get the things you want.
Online sales of services is a booming
business, even if Web Van died as a
failure. The idea is still a valid
possibility. The idea that might even
work for someone else. It's not known if
the business was a bad one or if the
employees, or management were to blame.
Web business are starting every day. We
here are working on some and the plan is
to use the members of Chromacity to help
make it happen. Future information
will be posted here as we make them
public.
While
no one is really quite sure what is actually
going on here, We do a good job confusing
people.
Chromacity got its start as
Chronicity, a combination
of a lot of different ideas and friends. I have always had lot of
fascination with the red planet Mars. We are to blame for the idea connected to
the planets, using their names as sections. In Robotech third series the good
guys were of the 21 Mars division. Opps! the Mars logo looks a lot like the one
in Robotech.
The Ranking system is based on
Star Trek and The US Navy. In Short the
navy only has 5 admirals. We had more people who
wanted high ranks, and made it up as we went
along. Oh and sometimes its just fun to be
different...
Mars Base division started as Jaka, AKA Jakan
Army or United Democratic Alliance of Jaka. The
club converted to United Republic of Chronicity
(URC) and part of its members splintered off
branch called El Grupo De Chronicity (EGDC).
EGDC's motto "Live life to the fullest and don't
take any of this seriously."
The definition of Chronicity is "A chronic
incurable habit." URC & EGDC still kind of exist but now its back together as
Chromacity: "the saturation of colors".
To Add other things to this site write to
Mars@Chromacity.org
we will try to upload it as fast as possible. Of course no one is getting paid
here.
Tip No. 10: "A genuine
leader is not a searcher for consensus but a molder of consensus."
-- Martin Luther King, Jr., Nobel
Laureate and civil right activist, 1929-1968
Main Home Page:
Some
of the information in this site is supplied by Neither RG., Chromacity.org, Chromacity.net, is responsible in any way for its
accuracy. All information is deemed correct but not warranted. It is not
intended to solicit. Many local sites are responsible for the activity that may
be listed here.
Views
expressed on some or all of the sites created by may not
reflect the personal opinions of or
its employees or Staff or Other web pages or associates found
anywhere within any of the sites listed here within.
A new
planet might be out there, Well Then
Again Not!!!
Most of
the Postings are listed at
Einahpets,
Aras,
Phobos,
and
Bolivia
pages. This is only a
problem for Mars pages. This
Confusion is not found at other
parts of the Chromacity web
site.
All links relating to Mars pages
are found on each of the
sections at
Einahpets,
Aras,
Phobos,
and
Bolivia
pages. Links usually are
connected to the higher ranking
members and may not be the
interest of all the members of
the individual Mars sections.
If you are a member & having
difficulty with links or you
wish to have your added Please
don't hesitate to let us know.
Chromacity went on-line November
11th 2001. This has been in the
works for a long time and we
hope this becomes a great tool
to help all of our members
achieve their goals. Or just
have fun playing.
Chromacity got its start as Chronicity, a combination of a lot of different
ideas and friends. I have always had lot of fascination with the red
planet Mars. I'm to blame for the idea connected to the planets, using their
names as sections. In Robotech third series the good guys were of the 21 Mars
division. Opps! the Mars logo looks a lot like the one in Robotech. The Ranking
system is based on Star Trek and The US Navy. In Short the navy only has 5
admirals. We had more people who wanted high ranks, and made it up as we went
along. Oh and sometimes its just fun to be different...
Click
on each of the names to link to the different places ofmars.
01
14
02
6
03
8
04
1
05
14
06
0
07
0
Totals
43
201 CAPTAIN STEPHANIE O. MARS "BOLIVIA"
202 COMMANDER STEPHANIE M MARS " BOLIVIA"
203 LT COMMANDER MICHELLE H. MARS " BOLIVIA"
204 LIEUTENANT SARA B. MARS " BOLIVIA"
205 MEMBER GRACE L. MARS " BOLIVIA"
206 MEMBER BETH D. MARS " BOLIVIA"
208 MEMBER CHRISTY E. M. MARS " BOLIVIA"
209 MEMBER ANN M. P. MARS " BOLIVIA"
210 LT. JR. GRADE RACHEL C. MARS "BOLIVIA"
211 MEMBER BRITTANY M. MARS " BOLIVIA"
212 MEMBER LESLEY A. MARS " BOLIVIA"
213 ENSIGN AMANDA M. MARS " BOLIVIA"
246 ENSIGN MISTY H. (R) MARS " BOLIVIA"
214 MEMBER CHRISTY E. R. MARS "BOLIVIA"
215 MEMBER TRACIE W. MARS "BOLIVIA"
Last updated:
Friday, December 24, 2010 04:15:28 AM
![[illustration]](http://us.yimg.com/i/edu/ref/ahd/t/bolivi.jpg)
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<--------Stephanie M.
